Channel Islands

The are an archipelago in the English Channel off the Normandy coast of France. They are divided into two British Crown Dependencies, the Bailiwicks of Guernsey and Jersey. The former also includes the islands of Alderney, Sark and Herm, and smaller islands are divided between the two bailiwicks.

The islands are not part of the United Kingdom or European Union, but rather are possessions of the British Crown with independent administrations. Their inhabitants are British citizens.

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The were owned by the Duchy of Normandy, and passed to the English Crown when William the Conqueror became King of England in 1066. While England lost mainland Normandy in 1204, the islands remained possessions of the Crown and were divided into the two bailiwicks later that century.

Ceuta, Melilla

Ceuta and Melilla, fragments of Europe on north Africa's Mediterranean coast, came under Spanish control around 500 years ago.

Madrid says the urban enclaves are integral parts of Spain. They are surrounded by Morocco, which views the Spanish presence as anachronistic and claims sovereignty.

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But improving relations were jeopardised in November 2007 by Spanish King Juan Carlos' II first visit to the territories in more than 30 years, which King Mohammed VI strongly condemned.

Spain also controls a scattering of islets along the north African coast, including uninhabited Perejil, which was at the centre of a spat in 2002 when Moroccan soldiers occupied it before being removed by the Spanish army.

More recently, differences over Ceuta and Melilla have not prevented a warming of relations between Morocco and Spain, particularly economic ones. Morocco's premier has advocated "neighbourly" talks on the issue.

Ajaria

A mountainous semi-autonomous region of Georgia, is situated on the Black Sea coast on Georgia's southwestern border with Turkey.

Its narrow band of coastal lowland has a lush sub-tropical climate while high in the mountains there can be snow for six months of the year.

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The port in the capital, Batumi, is used for the shipment of oil from Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan. Its oil refinery handles Caspian oil from Azerbaijan which arrives by pipeline to Supsa port and is transported from there to Batumi by rail.

Batumi is also an important gateway for the shipment of goods heading into Georgia, Azerbaijan and landlocked Armenia. The n capital is a centre for shipbuilding and manufacturing. has good land for growing tea, citrus fruits and tobacco.

History

The people of are overwhelmingly Georgians. Under Ottoman rule from the 17th until the 19th century Islam predominated. The word n came to mean a Georgian Muslim.

Abkhazia

declared independence from Georgia in 1999, but Tbilisi continues to regard it as a breakaway region

Situated in the north-western corner of Georgia with the Black Sea to the south-west and the Caucasus mountains and Russia to the north-east, was once known as a prime holiday destination for the Soviet elite.

's battle for independence from Georgia since the collapse of the USSR reduced the economy to ruins. More recent times have seen major Russian investment in the territory, as Moscow seeks to consolidate its influence.

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's long history was always closely intertwined with that of Georgia, although its language is unrelated, and is closer to several spoken in the North Caucasus.

Vatican

The is the smallest independent state in the world and the residence of the spiritual leadership of the Roman Catholic Church.

Its territory is completely surrounded by the Italian capital Rome, while priests and nuns of many nationalities make up much of the resident population.

The has been headed by Pope Benedict XVI since Pope John Paul II died in 2005 after a 26-year pontificate.

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Pope John Paul II was in office at a time of tremendous upheaval in Eastern Europe, including his homeland of Poland.

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He preached dialogue and reconciliation, between former political opponents and also between different religions. During a visit to Israel the Pope expressed sorrow for the history of anti-Semitism within the Catholic church.

He also sought to heal rifts with other churches within the Christian faith. Some of these moves have been successful, others less so.

But critics accused the 's social policy of being out-of-step with modern reality.

United Kingdom

The is made up of England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. It has a long history as a major player in international affairs and fulfils an important role in the EU, UN and Nato.

The twentieth century saw Britain having to redefine its place in the world. At the beginning of the century it commanded a world-wide empire as the foremost global power.

Two world wars and the end of empire diminished its role, but the UK remains a major economic and military power, with considerable political and cultural influence around the world.

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Britain was the world's first industrialised country. Its economy remains one of the largest, but it has for many years been based on service industries rather than on manufacturing.

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Despite being a major member of the EU, the country is not part of the euro zone, and the question of whether it will join any time soon appears to have receded for the moment. The government has said a series of economic criteria must be met before the issue can be put to a referendum.

In recent years the UK has taken steps to devolve powers to Scotland and Wales. The Scottish Parliament in Edinburgh and the National Assembly for Wales in Cardiff opened in 1999, and the possibility of devolution for the English regions has also been discussed.

Ukraine

gained independence after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 and has since veered between seeking closer integration with Western Europe and reconciliation with Russia, which supplies most of the country's energy.

Europe's second largest country, is a land of wide, fertile agricultural plains, with large pockets of heavy industry in the east.

While and Russia share common historical origins, the west of the country has close ties with its European neighbours, particularly Poland, and Ukrainian nationalist sentiment is strongest there.

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A significant minority of the population of are Russians or use Russian as their first language. Russian influence is particularly strong in the industrialised east, as well as in Crimea, an autonomous republic on the Black Sea which was part of Russia until 1954. The Russian Black Sea Fleet is based there.

Crimea is also the homeland of the Crimean Tatars whom Stalin accused of collaborating with the Nazis and deported to Central Asia in 1944. More than 250,000 have returned since the late 1980s.

Turkey

Once the centre of the Ottoman Empire, the modern secular republic was established in the 1920s by nationalist leader Kemal Ataturk.

Straddling the continents of Europe and Asia, 's strategically important location has given it major influence in the region - and control over the entrance to the Black Sea.

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's progress towards democracy and a market economy was halting in the decades following the death of President Ataturk in 1938. The army saw itself as the guarantor of the constitution, and ousted governments on a number of occasions when it thought they were challenging secular values.

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Efforts to reduce state control over the economy also faced many obstacles. After years of mounting difficulties which brought the country close to economic collapse, a tough recovery programme was agreed with the IMF in 2002.

The austerity measures imposed then meant that by the time the global financial crisis came round in 2008, was in a better position to weather the storm than many other countries.

The level of public debt was already relatively low, and although the effects of the recession were still felt, by 2010 the Turkish economy had started to bounce back - to the extent that by the beginning of 2011, concerns were being raised over whether the boom was sustainable.

Rise of AKP

Concerns over the potential for conflict between a secular establishment backed by the military and a traditional society deeply rooted in Islam resurfaced with the landslide election victory of the Islamist-based Justice and Development Party (AKP) in 2002.

The secularist opposition has on several occasions since then challenged the constitutional right of the AKP to be the party of government. In March 2008 the Constitutional Court narrowly rejected a petition by the chief prosecutor to ban the AKP and 71 of its officials, including President Abdullah Gul and Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan, for allegedly seeking to establish an Islamic state.

In recent years there have been several allegations that members of the military - which has long seen itself as the guardian of the secular system - have been involved in plots to overthrow the government.

Foreign relations

Switzerland

A landlocked, mountainous country, 's geographical position in central Europe and studious neutrality have given it the access and political stability to become one of the world's wealthiest countries, largely through its banking industry.

Formally neutral since just after the Napoleonic wars of the early 19th century and informally for about 300 years before that, joined the United Nations only in September 2002. Surrounded by the European Union, it is gradually engaging more closely with its powerful neighbour and other international organisations.

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Although it lies close to the geographical centre of Europe, and most of its trade is with its European neighbours, it is not an EU member. A referendum in 2001 went against opening talks on joining.

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Membership of the European Economic Area was also rejected by referendum in 1992 and Swiss-EU relations are now based on an extensive range of bilateral agreements.

Ties became closer in 2005 when a referendum backed membership of the EU Schengen and Dublin agreements, bringing into Europe's passport-free zone and increasing cooperation on crime and asylum issues. A further referendum the same year opened the job market to workers from the 10 newest EU member countries.

At the same time has been gradually acceding to international pressure to allow greater scrutiny of its famously secretive banking sector, amid growing concerns about money-laundering and the financing of terrorist groups.

The country forms a European cultural and linguistic crossroads, with about two-thirds of the population speaking German, around one-fifth French and about 7% Italian. Romansch, the fourth national language, is spoken by less than 1% of the population.

Sweden

's position as one of the world's most highly developed post-industrial societies looks fundamentally secure.

Unemployment is low and the economy strong. Public-private partnership is at the core of "the Swedish model", which was developed by the Social Democrats, who governed for most of the last 70 years until 2006.

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This mixed economy traditionally featured centralised wage negotiations and a heavily tax-subsidised social security network. The Swedes still enjoy an advanced welfare system, and their standard of living and life expectancy are almost second to none.

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The country is also a common destination for refugees and asylum seekers - immigrants make up more than 10% of its population.

Swedes voted in a referendum in 1980 to phase out nuclear power, and the country began to decommission reactors in 1999. However, fears over climate change and energy security persuaded the government to reverse the decision in 2009, and plans are on the table to replace the country's 10 remaining reactors.

Spain

Located at the crossroads of the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, Europe and Africa, 's history and culture are made up of a rich mix of diverse elements.

Through exploration and conquest, became a world power in the 16th century, and it maintained a vast overseas empire until the early 19th century.

's modern history is marked by the bitterly fought Spanish Civil War of 1936-39, and the ensuing 36-year dictatorship of General Francisco Franco.

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After Franco's death in 1975, made the transition to a democratic state and built a successful economy, with King Juan Carlos as head of state.

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The constitution of 1978 enshrines respect for linguistic and cultural diversity within a united . The country is divided into 17 regions which all have their own directly elected authorities. The level of autonomy afforded to each region is far from uniform. For example, Catalonia, the Basque Country and Galicia have special status with their own language and other rights.

Andalucia, Navarre, Valencia and the Canaries in turn have more extensive powers than some other regions. Asturias and Aragon have taken steps to consolidate language rights.

Slovenia

A country with spectacular mountains, thick forests and a short Adriatic coastline, also enjoys substantial economic and political stability.

It was the only one of the former Yugoslav republics to be in the first wave of candidates for membership of the European Union. It joined in May 2004.

Just a couple of months before EU entry, became a member of Nato.

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Unlike Croatia or Bosnia-Hercegovina, 's independence from Yugoslavia was relatively bloodless.

The move was undoubtedly aided by Western European recognition of the Slovenes' aspirations and the low proportion of other ethnic groups in the country.

Slovakia

Right at the heart of Europe and with a history intertwined with that of its neighbours, has proudly preserved its own language and distinct cultural traditions.

It was part of Czecho until the "velvet divorce" in January 1993. The subsequent independence years can be divided into several chapters.

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The story in chapter one revolved around frosty relations with the European Union and Nato combined with rejection of economic reform.

Chapter two saw a complete change of direction and moves to embrace all three, culminating in EU and Nato membership in 2004.

For the first five years after independence, there was growing international criticism of the lack of respect for minority rights and the democratic process shown by the authoritarian prime minister, Vladimir Meciar.

He led a string of coalition governments, pursuing nationalist and populist policies until October 1998 when an alliance of liberals, centrists, left-wingers and ethnic Hungarians ousted him, forming a new coalition with Mikulas Dzurinda as prime minister.

During Mr Dzurinda's term of office (1998-2006), forged ahead with an economic reform programme and saw a boost in foreign investment. His government also tried to improve the lot of minorities.

's ethnic Hungarian community constitutes about a tenth of the country's population, and the status of this substantial minority has long been a source of tension between and Hungary.

The premiership of Mr Dzurinda's successor, Robert Fico, has been marred by regular sparring over the treatment of the Hungarian minority.

also has a significant Romany population which suffers disproportionately high levels of poverty and social deprivation.

The post-war Benes decrees, which called for the expulsion of 3 million ethnic Germans and 600,000 ethnic Hungarians from then-Czecho and the confiscation of their property, remain a sensitive issue in relations with neighbours.

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Full name: Slovak Republic Population: 5.4 million (UN, 2010) Capital: Bratislava Area: 49,033 sq km (18,932 sq miles) Major language: Slovak Major religion: Christianity Life expectancy: 72 years (men), 79 years (women) (UN) Monetary unit: 1 euro

Serbia

became a stand-alone sovereign republic in summer 2006 after Montenegro voted in a referendum for independence from the Union of and Montenegro.

When the vote was followed by a formal declaration of independence by Montenegro, a special session of parliament in Belgrade declared to be the legal successor to the now defunct union of and Montenegro.

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inherits membership of the United Nations and other international institutions.

San Marino

Landlocked is one of the world's smallest countries. Surrounded by Italy, it is an echo from an era when city-states proliferated across Europe.

Mount Titano, part of the Appennine range, dominates 's landscape. Three defensive fortresses perch on Titano's slopes, looking out to the Adriatic coast.

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is said to be the world's oldest surviving republic.

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Tradition has it that the country was founded in the fourth century AD by a devout Christian stonemason called Marinus, who took refuge there and set up a small community. Its rugged isolation helped the enclave to develop and keep its independence.

An 1862 friendship and cooperation treaty with Italy, which has since been revised and expanded, reinforced 's independence.

Russia

emerged from a decade of post-Soviet economic and political turmoil to reassert itself as a world power.

Income from vast natural resources, above all oil and gas, have helped overcome the economic collapse of 1998. The state-run gas monopoly Gazprom is the world's largest producer and exporter, and supplies a growing share of Europe's needs.

Economic strength has allowed Vladimir Putin to enhance state control over political institutions and the media, buoyed by extensive public support for his policies as prime minister, president and now prime minister again.

Spanning nine time zones, is the largest country on earth in terms of surface area, although large tracts in the north and east are inhospitable and sparsely populated.

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This vast Eurasian land mass covers more than 17m sq km, with a climate ranging from the Arctic north to the generally temperate south.

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In the period of rapid privatisation in the early 1990s, the government of President Boris Yeltsin created a small but powerful group of magnates, often referred to as "oligarchs", who acquired vast interests in the energy and media sectors.

President Yeltsin's successor, Vladimir Putin, moved to reduce the political influence of oligarchs soon after taking office, forcing some into exile and prosecuting others.

Mikhail Khodorkovsky, the former head of the Yukos oil company and a supporter of the liberal opposition, is serving eight years in a Siberian penal colony on tax and fraud charges. Yukos assets were later acquired by the state oil giant Rosneft.

resurgent

During Mr Putin's presidency 's booming economy and assertive foreign policy bolstered national pride. In particular, promoted its perceived interests in former Soviet states more openly, even at the cost of antagonising the West.

Romania

The largest of the Balkan countries, has dramatic mountain scenery and a coastline on the Black Sea.

It has seen numerous empires come and go from the Roman, to the Ottoman, to the Austro-Hungarian.

After World War II the country was under communist rule although the leadership pursued a foreign policy independent of that of the Soviet Union.

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, a slower developer than other former communist countries of eastern Europe, took a major step away from its past when it was one of seven countries to join Nato in late March 2004. Its strategic location and Black Sea air and naval bases make it attractive to the alliance.

Portugal

, a country with a rich history of seafaring and discovery, looks out from the Iberian peninsula into the Atlantic Ocean.

When it handed over its last overseas territory, Macau, to Chinese administration in 1999, it brought to an end a long and sometimes turbulent era as a colonial power.

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The roots of that era stretch back to the 15th century when Portuguese explorers such as Vasco da Gama put to sea in search of a passage to India. By the 16th century these sailors had helped build a huge empire embracing Brazil as well as swathes of Africa and Asia. There are still some 200 million Portuguese speakers around the world today.

's history has had a lasting impact on the culture of the country with Moorish and Oriental influences in architecture and the arts. Traditional folk dance and music, particularly the melancholy fado, remain vibrant.

Poland

A nation with a proud cultural heritage, can trace its roots back over 1,000 years. Positioned at the centre of Europe, it has known turbulent and violent times.

There have been periods of independence as well as periods of domination by other countries. Several million people, half of them Jews, died in World War II.

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A new era began when became an EU member in May 2004, five years after joining Nato and 15 years after the end of communist rule.

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It was the birthplace of the former Soviet bloc's first officially recognised independent mass political movement when strikes at the Gdansk shipyard in August 1980 led to agreement with the authorities on the establishment of the Solidarity trade union.

The shoots of political freedom were trampled again 16 months later when communist leader Wojciech Jaruzelski declared martial law. But the movement for change was irreversible. Elections in summer 1989 ushered in eastern Europe's first post-communist government.

The presence in the Vatican of Polish Pope John-Paul II was an important influence on the Solidarity movement throughout the 1980s. The Roman Catholic church remains a very potent force in Polish life.

Norway

Europe's northernmost country, the Kingdom of is famed for its mountains and spectacular fjord coastline, as well as its history as a seafaring power.

It also enjoys one of the highest standards of living in the world, in large part due to the discovery in the late 1960s of offshore oil and gas deposits.

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's annual oil revenue amounts to around $40bn (£21bn), and more than half of its exports come from this sector. To counter inflation, spending of oil revenue was restricted.

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The considerable surplus is invested in a sovereign wealth fund, estimated in 2009 at $400bn.

What to do with the money is one of the country's most contentious political issues. The centre-right want more of it to be used to fund infrastructure improvements, while the centre-left wants to keep it invested for future generations.

declared its independence in 1905 when the union with Sweden was dissolved. 's people value their independence and prosperity highly. The Norwegians rejected membership of the then European Economic Community in 1972, and of the European Union in 1994, despite being urged by their governments to vote "yes".

In recent decades, has forged a stronger role for itself in international politics. It has mediated between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organisation, and from 2000 to 2009 was the chief mediator in the conflict between the Sri Lankan government and Tamil separatists.

Netherlands

The ' name reflects its low-lying topography, with more than a quarter of its total area under sea level.

Now a constitutional monarchy, the country began its independent life as a republic in the 16th century, when the foundations were laid for it to become one of the world's foremost maritime trading nations.

Although traditionally among the keener advocates of the European Union, Dutch voters echoed those in France by spurning the proposed EU constitution in a 2005 referendum.

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The has produced many of the world's most famous artists from Rembrandt and Vermeer in the 17th century to Van Gogh in the 19th and Mondrian in the 20th. It attracts visitors from across the globe.

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After a longstanding policy of neutrality between Europe's great powers, the bitter experience of invasion and occupation during World War II led the to become a leading supporter of international cooperation.

Almost 20% of the total area of the is water, and much of the land has been reclaimed from the North Sea in efforts which date back to medieval times and have spawned an extensive system of dykes.

Montenegro

emerged as a sovereign state after just over 55% of the population opted for independence in a May 2006 referendum.

The vote heralded the end of the former Union of Serbia and - itself created only three years earlier out of the remnant of the former Yugoslavia.

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The EU-brokered deal forming it was intended to stabilise the region by settling Montenegrin demands for independence from Serbia and preventing further changes to Balkan borders.

The same deal also contained the seeds of the union's dissolution. It stipulated that after three years the two republics could hold referendums on whether to keep or scrap it. opted for the latter.

Monaco

is the second-smallest independent state in the world. It is a playground for tourists and a haven for the wealthy, the former drawn by its climate and the beauty of its setting and the latter by its advantageous tax regime.

The country - a constitutional monarchy - is surrounded on three sides by France and occupies just under two square kilometres (0.75 sq mile) of the Cote d'Azur, where the Alpes Maritimes meet the Mediterranean.

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Tourism drives 's economy; gamblers flock to the Place du Casino in Monte-Carlo and every May the principality hosts the Grand Prix.

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The country is a major banking centre and closely guards the privacy of its clients.

But it has also been the focus of French concerns about its tax policy and has been accused of tolerating money-laundering - claims it strongly denies.

The principality was identified as a tax haven by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in 2003. It was subsequently placed on the OECD's blacklist of uncooperative tax havens, remaining there until 2009.

does not levy income tax on its residents.

Moldova

Sandwiched between Romania and Ukraine, emerged as an independent republic following the collapse of the USSR in 1991.

The bulk of it, between the rivers Dniester and Prut, is made up of an area formerly known as Bessarabia. This territory was annexed by the USSR in 1940 following the carve-up of Romania in the Ribbentrop-Molotov pact between Hitler's Germany and Stalin's USSR.

Two-thirds of ns are of Romanian descent, the languages are virtually identical and the two countries share a common cultural heritage.

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The industrialised territory to the east of the Dniester, generally known as Trans-Dniester or the Dniester region, was formally an autonomous area within Ukraine before 1940 when the Soviet Union combined it with Bessarabia to form the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic.

This area is mainly inhabited by Russian and Ukrainian speakers. As people there became increasingly alarmed at the prospect of closer ties with Romania in the tumultuous twilight years of the Soviet Union, Trans-Dniester unilaterally declared independence from in 1990.

There was fierce fighting there as it tried to assert this independence following the collapse of the USSR and the declaration of n sovereignty. Hundreds died. The violence ended with the introduction of Russian peacekeepers. Trans-Dniester's independence has never been recognised and the region has existed in a state of lawless and corrupt limbo ever since.

The region reasserted its demand for independence and also expressed support for a plan ultimately to join Russia in a September 2006 referendum which was unrecognised by Chisinau and the international community.

It still houses a stockpile of old Soviet military equipment and a contingent of troops of the Russian 14th army. Withdrawal began under international agreements in 2001 but was halted when the Trans-Dniester authorities blocked the dispatch of weapons. Subsequent agreements to resume did not reach fruition as relations between Moscow and Chisinau cooled.

The n parliament granted autonomous status to the Turkic-language speaking Gagauz region in the southwest of the republic in late 1994. It has powers over its own political, economic and cultural affairs.

is one of the poorest countries in Europe and has a large foreign debt and high unemployment. Its once-flourishing wine trade has been in decline and it is heavily dependent on Russia for energy supplies.

The Russian gas supplier Gazprom cut the gas supply off at the beginning of 2006 when refused to pay twice the previous price. A temporary compromise arrangement was reached soon afterwards and the two sides agreed a new price in July 2006 with a further rise in 2007.

Gas supplies were cut off again for several weeks in January 2009, this time as a result of a dispute over prices between supplier Russia and transit country Ukraine.

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Population: 3.6 million (UN, 2010) Capital: Chisinau Area: 33,800 sq km (13,050 sq miles) Major languages: n, Russian Major religion: Christianity Life expectancy: 66 years (men), 73 years (women) Monetary unit: 1 leu

Malta

The Maltese archipelago includes the islands of , Gozo, Comino, Comminotto and Filfla.

It has a history of colonial control spanning centuries.

Located south of the Italian island of Sicily between Europe and North Africa, it has been occupied by Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs and latterly France and Britain.

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Independence from Britain was achieved in 1964, after the Maltese people were awarded the George Cross for defending the island during World War II.

Forty years on was the smallest of the 10 countries to join the EU in May 2004. It joined the eurozone in 2008.

Macedonia

was spared the inter-ethnic violence that raged elsewhere in the Balkans following the break-up of Yugoslavia in the early 1990s but it came close to civil war a decade after independence.

Rebels staged an uprising in early 2001, demanding greater rights for the ethnic Albanian minority. The conflict created a wave of refugees and the rebels made territorial gains.

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After months of skirmishes, EU and Nato support enabled the president, Boris Trajkovski, to strike a peace deal. Under the Ohrid agreement, Albanian fighters laid down their arms in return for greater ethnic-Albanian recognition within a unitary state.

Luxembourg

The Grand Duchy of - a small country landlocked by Belgium, France and Germany - is a prominent financial centre.

With roots stretching back to the 10th century, 's history is closely intertwined with that of its more powerful neighbours, especially Germany.

Many of its inhabitants are trilingual in French, German and ish - a dialect of German.

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Despite declaring its neutrality, was occupied by Germany during both World Wars. Attempts to escape German influence initially led to an economic union with Belgium in 1921.

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After renewed occupation in World War II, abandoned its neutrality and became a front-rank enthusiast for international co-operation.

became a founder member of a customs union with Belgium and the Netherlands in 1948, and of the European Economic Community, a forerunner of the European Union, in 1957. Around one-third of 's population are foreigners.

's prosperity was formerly based on steel manufacturing. With the decline of that industry, diversified and is now best known for its status as Europe's most powerful investment management centre.

But the country's strict laws on banking secrecy produced a system that was open to exploitation for the purposes of tax evasion and fraud.

Concern over 's reputation as a tax haven - especially in the wake of the 2008 financial crisis - prompted the G20 group of countries to add it to a "grey list" of nations with questionable banking arrangements in April 2009.

responded by taking steps to improve the transparency of its financial arrangements. By July 2009 it had signed agreements on the exchange of tax information with a dozen countries, and was commended by the OECD for its prompt efforts to implement the internationally agreed standard.

Constitutional reform

's politics are characterised by stability and long-serving administrations.

This tranquillity was interrupted in 2008, when Grand Duke Henri said his conscience would not allow him to sign into law a bill approving euthanasia.

The crisis was resolved by a constitutional reform which removed the need for laws to be approved by the monarch, reducing the post to a largely ceremonial role.

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Full name: Grand Duchy of Population: 492,000 (UN, 2010) Capital: Area: 2,586 sq km (999 sq miles) Major languages: French, German, ish Major religion: Christianity Life expectancy: 78 years (men), 83 years (women) (UN) Monetary unit: 1 Euro

Lithuania

is the largest and most southerly of the three Baltic republics.

Not much more than a decade after it regained its independence during the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1990, was welcomed as a Nato member in late March 2004.

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The move came just weeks before a second historic shift for the country in establishing its place in the Western family of nations as it joined the EU in May 2004. These developments would have been extremely hard to imagine in not-so-distant Soviet times.

Russia, anxious about the implications of the eastward advance of the EU and Nato to include the three Baltic republics, has a particular eye on which has an important border with the Russian exclave of Kaliningrad.

Liechtenstein

The Principality of is a tiny, landlocked country tucked away between Switzerland and Austria and with mountain slopes rising above the Rhine valley.

It owes much of its wealth to its traditional status as a low tax haven, though the country has in recent years taken steps to shake off its image as a tax haven and to reposition itself as a legitimate financial centre.

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This status came under the spotlight in 2000 when two international reports criticised for lax financial controls. The reports said that the banking system enabled gangs from Russia, Italy and Colombia to launder money from their criminal activities.

Latvia

Situated in north-eastern Europe with a coastline along the Baltic Sea, is geographically the middle of the three former Soviet Baltic republics.

It has language links with Lithuania to the south and historical and ecumenical ties with Estonia to the north.

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Not much more than a decade after it declared independence following the collapse of the USSR, was welcomed as an EU member in May 2004. The move came just weeks after it joined Nato. These developments would have been extremely hard to imagine in not-so-distant Soviet times.

Italy

Take the art works of Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Tintoretto and Caravaggio, the operas of Verdi and Puccini, the cinema of Federico Fellini, add the architecture of Venice, Florence and Rome and you have just a fraction of 's treasures from over the centuries.

While the country is renowned for these and other delights, it is also notorious for its precarious political life and has had several dozen governments since the end of World War II.

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The Italian political landscape underwent a seismic shift in the 1990s when the "Clean Hands" operation exposed corruption at the highest levels of politics and big business. Several former prime ministers were implicated and thousands of businessmen and politicians were investigated.

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was one of the six countries which signed the 1951 Paris Treaty setting Europe off on the path to integration. It has been staunchly at the heart of Europe ever since, although in the early 2000s the government of Silvio Berlusconi adopted a more Eurosceptic stance.

Mr Berlusconi sought to align more closely to the US, breaking ranks with the country's traditional allies, France and Germany, in his support for the US-led campaign in Iraq.

The Europhile Romano Prodi, who was prime minister from 2006 to 2008, pulled the Italian troops out of Iraq and set about restoring good relations with other EU member states.

Ireland

, which is often called the Irish Republic to distinguish it from British Northern , emerged from the conflict that marked its birth as an independent state to become one of Europe's economic success stories in the final decade of the twentieth century.

Long under English or British rule, lost half its population in the decades following the Great Potato Famine of the 1840s, becoming a nation of emigrants. After World War I, independence from the United Kingdom was only achieved at the price of civil war and partition.

After the country joined the European Community in 1973, it was transformed from a largely agricultural society into a modern, high-technology economy.

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For centuries British dominion in gave rise to unrest which finally erupted into violence with the Easter Rising of 1916, when independence was proclaimed. The rising was crushed and many of its leaders executed, but the campaign for independence carried on through a bloody Anglo-Irish War of 1919-1921.

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It was in 1922 that 26 counties of gained independence from London following negotiations which led to the other six counties, part of the province of Ulster, remaining in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern . Partition was followed by a year of civil war.

Relations between Dublin and London remained strained for many years afterwards. Northern saw decades of violent conflict between those campaigning for a united and those wishing to stay in the United Kingdom.

In an unprecedented and concerted effort to resolve the situation, the Irish and UK governments worked closely together in negotiations which led to the Good Friday Agreement on the future of Northern in 1998.

Estonia

A small and heavily forested country, is the most northerly of the three former Soviet Baltic republics.

Not much more than a decade after it regained its independence following the collapse of the USSR, the republic was welcomed as an EU member in May 2004. The move came just weeks after it joined Nato.

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These historic developments would have been extremely hard to imagine in not-so-distant Soviet times.

Denmark

The kingdom of has, despite its relatively small size, often punched above its weight internationally.

Vikings raiding from and the other Nordic nations changed the course of 9th- and 10th-century European history; in the Middle Ages, the Union of Kalmar united all of Scandinavia under Danish leadership.

In recent times, has been known for its modern economy and extensive welfare system, while enjoying an often difficult relationship with the European Union.

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The Danes rejected the euro as the national currency in a referendum in September 2000. Analysts believe that Danish fears of loss of political independence and national sovereignty outweighed any economic arguments about the benefits of joining the eurozone.

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's euroscepticism put it at odds with many of its European partners seven years previously when Danish voters rejected the Maastricht Treaty which proposed monetary union and a common European defence force. had to be granted opt-outs from these provisions before the treaty was approved in 1993.

The Social Democrats led a string of coalition governments for most of the second half of the last century in a country generally known for its liberal traditions.

Poul Schluter then became the first-ever Danish prime minister representing the Conservative People's Party in 1982, leading a centre-right coalition until 1993, when he was succeeded by the Social Democrat Poul Nyrup Rasmussen.

Czech Republic

Part of Czechoslovakia until the "velvet divorce" in January 1993, the has a robust democratic tradition, a highly-developed economy, and a rich cultural heritage.

It emerged from over 40 years of Communist rule in 1990, and was the first former Eastern Bloc state to acquire the status of a developed economy. It joined the European Union in 2004.

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Communist rule had lasted since the late 1948, when the restored prewar democratic system was overthrown in a Soviet-backed coup. The "Prague Spring" of 1968, when Communist leader Alexander Dubcek tried to bring in liberal reforms, was crushed by Warsaw Pact tanks.

In 1989, as the curtain was coming down on communism in the Kremlin, the dissident playwright Vaclav Havel emerged as the figurehead of the country's "velvet revolution" and became the first president of post-communist Czechoslovakia.

An era ended in February 2003 when he stepped down as president. It had been interrupted for only a few months at the time of the separation of the and Slovakia, with Mr Havel becoming first president of the former.

Iceland

A sparsely-populated North Atlantic island, is famous for its hot springs, geysers and active volcanoes. Lava fields cover much of the land and hot water is pumped from under the ground to supply much of the country's heating.

became an independent republic in 1944 and went on to become one of the world's most prosperous economies. However, the collapse of the banking system in 2008 exposed that prosperity as having been built on a dangerously vulnerable economic model.

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In recent years enjoyed a standard of living that was among the highest in the world. Its prosperity initially rested on the fishing industry, but with the gradual contraction of this sector the ic economy developed into new areas.

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By the beginning of the 21st century, had come to epitomise the global credit boom. Its banks expanded dramatically overseas and foreign money poured into the country, fuelling exceptional growth.

Before the global credit crunch took hold, ic banks had foreign assets worth about 10 times the country's GDP, with debts to match, and ic businesses also made major investments abroad.

The global financial crisis of 2008 exposed the ic economy's dependence on the banking sector, leaving it particularly vulnerable to collapse.

In October 2008, the government took over control of all three of the country's major banks in an effort to stabilise the financial system. Shortly after this, became the first western country to apply to the International Monetary Fund (IMF) for emergency financial aid since 1976.

The economy shrank by 6.8% in 2009, though by the end of 2010 there were some signs of an improvement, with the first growth recorded for two years.

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Hungary

traces its history back to the Magyars, an alliance of semi-nomadic tribes from southern Russia and the Black Sea coast that arrived in the region in the ninth century.

After centuries as a powerful medieval kingdom, was part of the Ottoman and then Habsburg empires from the 16th century onwards, emerging as an independent country again after World War I.
The Hungarian language belongs to the Finno-Ugric family and is one of the handful of languages spoken within the European Union that are not of Indo-European origin.

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A landlocked country, is home to Lake Balaton, the largest in central Europe, and to a large number of spa towns and hot springs.

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It has especially rich traditions in folk and classical music and was the birthplace of numerous outstanding performers and composers, including Franz Liszt, Bela Bartok and Zoltan Kodaly.

became a partner in the Austro-Hungarian empire in the mid-19th century. After a period of turmoil following World War I, an independent kingdom of was established.

The redrawing of European borders that took place after World War I left about five million ethnic Hungarians living in neighbouring countries. Their status remains a sensitive issue and has complicated 's relations with its neighbours.

Following World War II, the country found itself under communist rule. An uprising against Soviet domination in 1956 was crushed by Red Army forces but did later become the first Eastern European country to gain some economic freedom. It embraced aspects of the free market while still under communist rule and in 1968 the authorities allowed limited decentralisation of the economy.

Greece

The historical and cultural heritage of continues to resonate throughout the modern Western world - in its literature, art, philosophy and politics.

Situated in the far south of the Balkan peninsula, combines the towering mountains of the mainland with over 1400 islands, the largest of which is Crete.

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Post-World War II has seen rapid economic and social change. Major contributors to the economy are tourism and shipping.

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The financial crisis of the late 2000s hit particularly hard, as the legacy of high public spending and widespread tax evasion combined with the credit crunch and the resulting recession to leave the country with a crippling debt burden.

In the spring of 2010, amid fears of an imminent default on debt payments, 's fellow eurozone countries agreed an unprecedented $145bn package to rescue its teetering economy. The main condition attached to the loan - drastic cuts in public spending and tax hikes - prompted fears of protracted social unrest and instability.

Germany

is Europe's most industrialized and populous country. Famed for its technological achievements, it has also produced some of Europe's most celebrated composers, philosophers and poets.

Achieving national unity later than other European nations, quickly caught up economically and militarily, before defeats in World War I and II left the country shattered, facing the difficult legacy of Nazism, and divided between Europe's Cold War blocs.

rebounded to become the continent's economic giant, and a prime mover of European cooperation. With the end of the Cold War, the two parts of the country were once again united, but at an economic price that is still being felt.

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Georgia

Situated at the strategically important crossroads where Europe meets Asia, has a unique and ancient cultural heritage, and is famed for its traditions of hospitality and cuisine.

Over the centuries, was the object of rivalry between Persia, Turkey and Russia, before being eventually annexed by Russia in the 19th century.

Since emerging from the collapsing Soviet Union as an independent state in 1991, has again become the arena of conflicting interests, this time between the US and a reviving Russia. Tense relations with Russia have been further exacerbated by Moscow's support for the separatist regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia.

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's brief interlude of independence after the 1917 Bolshevik revolution in Russia ended when it was invaded by the Soviet Red Army in 1921 and incorporated into the Soviet Union a year later.

France

A key player on the world stage and a country at the political heart of Europe, paid a high price in both economic and human terms during the two world wars.

The years which followed saw protracted conflicts culminating in independence for Algeria and most other French colonies in Africa as well as decolonisation in south-east Asia.

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was one of the founding fathers of European integration as the continent sought to rebuild after the devastation of World War II.

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In the 1990s Franco-German cooperation was central to European economic integration. The bond between the two countries was again to the fore in the new millennium when their leaders voiced strong opposition as the US-led campaign in Iraq began.

But sent shockwaves through European Union capitals when its voters rejected the proposed EU constitution in a referendum in May 2005.

's colonial past is a major contributing factor in the presence of a richly diverse multicultural population. It is home to more than five million people of Arab and African descent.

Finland

Around two-thirds of is covered in forest and about a tenth by water.

In the far north, the sun does not set for around 10 weeks during the 'White Nights' of summer, while in winter it does not rise above the horizon for nearly eight weeks.

This wild northern landscape inspired 's greatest composer Jean Sibelius. His work came to symbolise the country's struggle for independence in the early 20th century after centuries under the domination of its neighbours.

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Hundreds of years of Swedish rule were followed by a further century of Russian control. The country displays distinctive elements of past Scandinavian and Russian links in its style and culture.

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Independence in 1917 failed to stem the demands of 's giant eastern neighbour. World War II saw fierce fighting along 's eastern border.

Finnish troops mounted a vigorous response to Soviet forces and stalled their advance, but the country was eventually forced to cede 10% of its territory and make extensive war reparation payments to the Soviets.

The collapse of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s allowed to step out of the Cold War shadow. It applied for membership of the EU soon after its friendship treaty with the Soviet Union became void in 1991, becoming a full member in 1995.

Cyprus

By legend the birthplace of the ancient Greek goddess of love Aphrodite, 's modern history has, in contrast, been dominated by enmity between its Greek and Turkish inhabitants.

has been divided since 1974 when Turkey invaded the north in response to a military coup on the island which was backed by the Athens government.

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In 1974 the island was effectively partitioned with the northern third inhabited by Turkish Cypriots and the southern two-thirds by Greek Cypriots.

A "Green Line" - dividing the two parts from Morphou through Nicosia to Famagusta - is patrolled by United Nations troops.

The UN drew up the Green Line as a ceasefire demarcation line in 1963 after intervening to end communal tension. It became impassable after the Turkish invasion of 1974, except for designated crossing points.

Croatia

's declaration of independence in 1991 was followed by four years of war and the best part of a decade of authoritarian nationalism under President Franjo Tudjman.

By early 2003 it had made enough progress in shaking off the legacy of those years to apply for EU membership, becoming the second former Yugoslav republic after Slovenia to do so.

A country of striking natural beauty with a stunning Adriatic coastline, is again very popular as a tourist destination.

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's EU Accession talks were postponed because of its failure to detain Gen Ante Gotovina, wanted by the international war crimes tribunal in The Hague.

later got the green light for talks to proceed in October 2005. The fugitive general was arrested in Spain shortly afterwards.

Bulgaria

, situated in the eastern Balkans, has been undergoing a slow and painful transition to a market economy since the end of Communist rule in 1991.

A predominantly Slavic-speaking, Orthodox country, was the birthplace of the Cyrillic alphabet, which was created there towards the end of the 9th century AD.

It was long influenced by Byzantine culture and was part of the Ottoman Empire for 500 years before gaining its independence in the 19th century.

After World War II it became a satellite of the Soviet Union, but is now a member country of the EU and NATO.

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Its transition to democracy and a market economy after the collapse of communism has not been easy and the country is striving to boost low standards of living.

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Throughout the early 1990s was wracked by political instability and strikes. The former communists were a powerful influence. Although the end of the decade was more stable, there was little tangible progress with economic reform.

Under 's former king, Simeon II, who was prime minister between 2001 and 2005, the country pressed ahead with market reforms designed to meet EU economic targets.

It achieved growth, saw unemployment fall from highs of nearly 20% and inflation come under control but incomes and living standards remained low.

Bosnia-Hercegovina

is recovering from a devastating three-year war which accompanied the break-up of Yugoslavia in the early 1990s.

The 1992-1995 conflict centred on whether Bosnia should stay in the Yugoslav Federation, or whether it should become independent.

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It is now an independent state, but under international administration. Its three main ethnic groups are Bosniaks (Bosnian Muslims), Croats and Serbs. The war left Bosnia's infrastructure and economy in tatters. Around two million people - about half the population - were displaced.

International administration, backed at first by Nato forces and later by a smaller European Union-led peacekeeping force, has helped the country consolidate stability.

Belgium

For such a small country, has been a major European battleground over the centuries.

Occupied by Germany during World Wars I and II, it has experienced an economic boom in the last 50 years to become a model Western European liberal democracy.

However, there has also been a growing divide between the mainly Dutch-speaking north and the mainly French-speaking south, with some even speculating that the country could break up.

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Brussels is the headquarters of the European Union and the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (Nato). Thus, it is the polyglot home of an army of international diplomats and civil servants.

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The country stretches from the dunes of the northern coastline through the Flemish lowlands and on to the forests of the rolling Ardennes hills in the south.

reconciles regional and cultural identities in a single federal structure.

The structure includes three communities - Flemish, French and German-speaking - and three regions: Flanders in the north where the official language is Dutch; Wallonia in the south where French is the official tongue and Brussels, the capital, where French and Dutch share official language status. Wallonia has a 70,000-strong German-speaking minority.

Belarus

The present borders of were established during the turmoil of World War II.

The former Soviet republic was occupied by the Nazis between 1941 and 1944, when it lost 2.2 million people, including most of its large Jewish population.

There are about 400,000 ethnic Poles living in the west of the country.

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It has been ruled with an increasingly iron fist since 1994 by President Alexander Lukashenko. Opposition figures are subjected to harsh penalties for organising protests.

In early 2005, was listed by the US as Europe's only remaining "outpost of tyranny". In late 2008, there were some signs of a slight easing of tensions with the West, though this proved to be only a temporary thaw.

Azerbaijan

Oil-rich gained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991 amid political turmoil and against a backdrop of violence in Nagorno-Karabakh.

It has been famed for its oil springs and natural gas sources since ancient times, when Zoroastrians, for whom fire is an important symbol, erected temples around burning gas vents in the ground.

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In the 19th century this part of the Russian empire experienced an unprecedented oil boom which attracted international investment. By the beginning of the 20th century was supplying almost half of the world's oil.

In 1994 signed an oil contract worth $7.4bn with a Western consortium. Since then Western companies have invested millions in the development of the country's oil and gas reserves. However, the economy as a whole has not benefited as much as it might have done.

Austria

Famous for its spectacular mountain scenery, is no longer the dominant political force it was in Central Europe under the Habsburg dynasty which ruled until the first world war.

However, its position at the geographical heart of Europe on the key Danube trade route enhances its strategic importance.

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After being joined to Nazi Germany from 1938-1945, was occupied by the Allies, who divided up the country and the capital Vienna into separate sectors.

However, the 1955 State Treaty - signed by the Allies - guaranteed 's unity, ensuring it did not suffer Germany's fate of being split between the Soviets and the Western Cold War blocs.

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In return, declared permanent neutrality, to which it still adheres.

There were some questions surrounding this when two thirds of voters supported EU membership in a referendum in 1994 and entry followed in 1995.

The entry into 's coalition government of the far-right Freedom Party in February 2000 sent shockwaves across Europe. 's relations with the EU were severely strained after some states imposed sanctions in protest. These were lifted some months later.

The capital, Vienna, is home to key international organisations, including the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and Opec, the Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries.

Armenia

A landlocked country with Turkey to the west and Georgia to the north, boasts a history longer than most other European countries
Situated along the route of the Great Silk Road, it has fallen within the orbit of a number of cultural influences and empires.

After independence from the Soviet Union in 1991, quickly became drawn into a bloody conflict with Azerbaijan over the mostly n-speaking region of Nagorno-Karabakh.

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One of the earliest Christian civilisations, its first churches were founded in the fourth century. In later centuries, it frequently oscillated between Byzantine, Persian, Mongol or Turkish control, as well as periods of independence.
Its rich cultural and architectural heritage combines elements from different traditions. The n language is part of the Indo-European family, but its alphabet is unique.
Divided between the Persians and Ottomans in the 16th century, eastern n territories became part of the Russian Empire in the early 19th century, while the rest stayed within the Ottoman Empire.


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Andorra

Almost hidden on the border between France and Spain, the tiny principality of is a land of narrow valleys and mountainous landscapes.

The mainstay of the economy is tourism.

An estimated 10 million people visit each year, drawn by the winter sports, summer climate and duty-free goods.

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For more than 700 years has been ruled jointly by the leader of France and the Spanish Bishop of Urgel.

The first n Constitution was passed in 1993, establishing a parliamentary co-principality.

The co-princes remain 's heads of state but the roles are largely honorary.

The country's banking sector enjoys partial tax-haven status.

is not a member of the EU, but enjoys a special relationship with it and uses the euro.

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Full name: The Principality of Population: 82,000 (UN, 2009) Capital: la Vella Major languages: Catalan (official language), Spanish, French Major religion: Christianity Life expectancy: 81 years (men), 87 years (women) Monetary unit: 1 euro

Albania

Albania is a small, mountainous country in the Balkan peninsula, with a long Adriatic and Ionian coastline.
Along with neighbouring and mainly n-inhabited Kosovo, it has a Muslim majority - a legacy of its centuries of Ottoman rule.

After World War II, became a Stalinist state under Enver Hoxha, and remained staunchly isolationist until its transition to democracy after 1990.
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The 1992 elections ended 47 years of communist rule, but the latter half of the decade saw a quick turnover of presidents and prime ministers.
Many ns left the country in search of work; the money they send home remains an important source of revenue.
During the Nato bombing of Yugoslavia in 1999, nearly 500,000 ethnic n refugees from Kosovo spilled over the border, imposing a huge burden on 's already fragile economy.