Channel Islands

The are an archipelago in the English Channel off the Normandy coast of France. They are divided into two British Crown Dependencies, the Bailiwicks of Guernsey and Jersey. The former also includes the islands of Alderney, Sark and Herm, and smaller islands are divided between the two bailiwicks.

The islands are not part of the United Kingdom or European Union, but rather are possessions of the British Crown with independent administrations. Their inhabitants are British citizens.

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The were owned by the Duchy of Normandy, and passed to the English Crown when William the Conqueror became King of England in 1066. While England lost mainland Normandy in 1204, the islands remained possessions of the Crown and were divided into the two bailiwicks later that century.

Ceuta, Melilla

Ceuta and Melilla, fragments of Europe on north Africa's Mediterranean coast, came under Spanish control around 500 years ago.

Madrid says the urban enclaves are integral parts of Spain. They are surrounded by Morocco, which views the Spanish presence as anachronistic and claims sovereignty.

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But improving relations were jeopardised in November 2007 by Spanish King Juan Carlos' II first visit to the territories in more than 30 years, which King Mohammed VI strongly condemned.

Spain also controls a scattering of islets along the north African coast, including uninhabited Perejil, which was at the centre of a spat in 2002 when Moroccan soldiers occupied it before being removed by the Spanish army.

More recently, differences over Ceuta and Melilla have not prevented a warming of relations between Morocco and Spain, particularly economic ones. Morocco's premier has advocated "neighbourly" talks on the issue.

Ajaria

A mountainous semi-autonomous region of Georgia, is situated on the Black Sea coast on Georgia's southwestern border with Turkey.

Its narrow band of coastal lowland has a lush sub-tropical climate while high in the mountains there can be snow for six months of the year.

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The port in the capital, Batumi, is used for the shipment of oil from Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan. Its oil refinery handles Caspian oil from Azerbaijan which arrives by pipeline to Supsa port and is transported from there to Batumi by rail.

Batumi is also an important gateway for the shipment of goods heading into Georgia, Azerbaijan and landlocked Armenia. The n capital is a centre for shipbuilding and manufacturing. has good land for growing tea, citrus fruits and tobacco.

History

The people of are overwhelmingly Georgians. Under Ottoman rule from the 17th until the 19th century Islam predominated. The word n came to mean a Georgian Muslim.

Abkhazia

declared independence from Georgia in 1999, but Tbilisi continues to regard it as a breakaway region

Situated in the north-western corner of Georgia with the Black Sea to the south-west and the Caucasus mountains and Russia to the north-east, was once known as a prime holiday destination for the Soviet elite.

's battle for independence from Georgia since the collapse of the USSR reduced the economy to ruins. More recent times have seen major Russian investment in the territory, as Moscow seeks to consolidate its influence.

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's long history was always closely intertwined with that of Georgia, although its language is unrelated, and is closer to several spoken in the North Caucasus.

Vatican

The is the smallest independent state in the world and the residence of the spiritual leadership of the Roman Catholic Church.

Its territory is completely surrounded by the Italian capital Rome, while priests and nuns of many nationalities make up much of the resident population.

The has been headed by Pope Benedict XVI since Pope John Paul II died in 2005 after a 26-year pontificate.

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Pope John Paul II was in office at a time of tremendous upheaval in Eastern Europe, including his homeland of Poland.

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He preached dialogue and reconciliation, between former political opponents and also between different religions. During a visit to Israel the Pope expressed sorrow for the history of anti-Semitism within the Catholic church.

He also sought to heal rifts with other churches within the Christian faith. Some of these moves have been successful, others less so.

But critics accused the 's social policy of being out-of-step with modern reality.

United Kingdom

The is made up of England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. It has a long history as a major player in international affairs and fulfils an important role in the EU, UN and Nato.

The twentieth century saw Britain having to redefine its place in the world. At the beginning of the century it commanded a world-wide empire as the foremost global power.

Two world wars and the end of empire diminished its role, but the UK remains a major economic and military power, with considerable political and cultural influence around the world.

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Britain was the world's first industrialised country. Its economy remains one of the largest, but it has for many years been based on service industries rather than on manufacturing.

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Despite being a major member of the EU, the country is not part of the euro zone, and the question of whether it will join any time soon appears to have receded for the moment. The government has said a series of economic criteria must be met before the issue can be put to a referendum.

In recent years the UK has taken steps to devolve powers to Scotland and Wales. The Scottish Parliament in Edinburgh and the National Assembly for Wales in Cardiff opened in 1999, and the possibility of devolution for the English regions has also been discussed.

Ukraine

gained independence after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 and has since veered between seeking closer integration with Western Europe and reconciliation with Russia, which supplies most of the country's energy.

Europe's second largest country, is a land of wide, fertile agricultural plains, with large pockets of heavy industry in the east.

While and Russia share common historical origins, the west of the country has close ties with its European neighbours, particularly Poland, and Ukrainian nationalist sentiment is strongest there.

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A significant minority of the population of are Russians or use Russian as their first language. Russian influence is particularly strong in the industrialised east, as well as in Crimea, an autonomous republic on the Black Sea which was part of Russia until 1954. The Russian Black Sea Fleet is based there.

Crimea is also the homeland of the Crimean Tatars whom Stalin accused of collaborating with the Nazis and deported to Central Asia in 1944. More than 250,000 have returned since the late 1980s.

Turkey

Once the centre of the Ottoman Empire, the modern secular republic was established in the 1920s by nationalist leader Kemal Ataturk.

Straddling the continents of Europe and Asia, 's strategically important location has given it major influence in the region - and control over the entrance to the Black Sea.

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's progress towards democracy and a market economy was halting in the decades following the death of President Ataturk in 1938. The army saw itself as the guarantor of the constitution, and ousted governments on a number of occasions when it thought they were challenging secular values.

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Efforts to reduce state control over the economy also faced many obstacles. After years of mounting difficulties which brought the country close to economic collapse, a tough recovery programme was agreed with the IMF in 2002.

The austerity measures imposed then meant that by the time the global financial crisis came round in 2008, was in a better position to weather the storm than many other countries.

The level of public debt was already relatively low, and although the effects of the recession were still felt, by 2010 the Turkish economy had started to bounce back - to the extent that by the beginning of 2011, concerns were being raised over whether the boom was sustainable.

Rise of AKP

Concerns over the potential for conflict between a secular establishment backed by the military and a traditional society deeply rooted in Islam resurfaced with the landslide election victory of the Islamist-based Justice and Development Party (AKP) in 2002.

The secularist opposition has on several occasions since then challenged the constitutional right of the AKP to be the party of government. In March 2008 the Constitutional Court narrowly rejected a petition by the chief prosecutor to ban the AKP and 71 of its officials, including President Abdullah Gul and Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan, for allegedly seeking to establish an Islamic state.

In recent years there have been several allegations that members of the military - which has long seen itself as the guardian of the secular system - have been involved in plots to overthrow the government.

Foreign relations

Switzerland

A landlocked, mountainous country, 's geographical position in central Europe and studious neutrality have given it the access and political stability to become one of the world's wealthiest countries, largely through its banking industry.

Formally neutral since just after the Napoleonic wars of the early 19th century and informally for about 300 years before that, joined the United Nations only in September 2002. Surrounded by the European Union, it is gradually engaging more closely with its powerful neighbour and other international organisations.

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Although it lies close to the geographical centre of Europe, and most of its trade is with its European neighbours, it is not an EU member. A referendum in 2001 went against opening talks on joining.

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Membership of the European Economic Area was also rejected by referendum in 1992 and Swiss-EU relations are now based on an extensive range of bilateral agreements.

Ties became closer in 2005 when a referendum backed membership of the EU Schengen and Dublin agreements, bringing into Europe's passport-free zone and increasing cooperation on crime and asylum issues. A further referendum the same year opened the job market to workers from the 10 newest EU member countries.

At the same time has been gradually acceding to international pressure to allow greater scrutiny of its famously secretive banking sector, amid growing concerns about money-laundering and the financing of terrorist groups.

The country forms a European cultural and linguistic crossroads, with about two-thirds of the population speaking German, around one-fifth French and about 7% Italian. Romansch, the fourth national language, is spoken by less than 1% of the population.

Sweden

's position as one of the world's most highly developed post-industrial societies looks fundamentally secure.

Unemployment is low and the economy strong. Public-private partnership is at the core of "the Swedish model", which was developed by the Social Democrats, who governed for most of the last 70 years until 2006.

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This mixed economy traditionally featured centralised wage negotiations and a heavily tax-subsidised social security network. The Swedes still enjoy an advanced welfare system, and their standard of living and life expectancy are almost second to none.

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The country is also a common destination for refugees and asylum seekers - immigrants make up more than 10% of its population.

Swedes voted in a referendum in 1980 to phase out nuclear power, and the country began to decommission reactors in 1999. However, fears over climate change and energy security persuaded the government to reverse the decision in 2009, and plans are on the table to replace the country's 10 remaining reactors.

Spain

Located at the crossroads of the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, Europe and Africa, 's history and culture are made up of a rich mix of diverse elements.

Through exploration and conquest, became a world power in the 16th century, and it maintained a vast overseas empire until the early 19th century.

's modern history is marked by the bitterly fought Spanish Civil War of 1936-39, and the ensuing 36-year dictatorship of General Francisco Franco.

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After Franco's death in 1975, made the transition to a democratic state and built a successful economy, with King Juan Carlos as head of state.

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The constitution of 1978 enshrines respect for linguistic and cultural diversity within a united . The country is divided into 17 regions which all have their own directly elected authorities. The level of autonomy afforded to each region is far from uniform. For example, Catalonia, the Basque Country and Galicia have special status with their own language and other rights.

Andalucia, Navarre, Valencia and the Canaries in turn have more extensive powers than some other regions. Asturias and Aragon have taken steps to consolidate language rights.

Slovenia

A country with spectacular mountains, thick forests and a short Adriatic coastline, also enjoys substantial economic and political stability.

It was the only one of the former Yugoslav republics to be in the first wave of candidates for membership of the European Union. It joined in May 2004.

Just a couple of months before EU entry, became a member of Nato.

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Unlike Croatia or Bosnia-Hercegovina, 's independence from Yugoslavia was relatively bloodless.

The move was undoubtedly aided by Western European recognition of the Slovenes' aspirations and the low proportion of other ethnic groups in the country.

Slovakia

Right at the heart of Europe and with a history intertwined with that of its neighbours, has proudly preserved its own language and distinct cultural traditions.

It was part of Czecho until the "velvet divorce" in January 1993. The subsequent independence years can be divided into several chapters.

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The story in chapter one revolved around frosty relations with the European Union and Nato combined with rejection of economic reform.

Chapter two saw a complete change of direction and moves to embrace all three, culminating in EU and Nato membership in 2004.

For the first five years after independence, there was growing international criticism of the lack of respect for minority rights and the democratic process shown by the authoritarian prime minister, Vladimir Meciar.

He led a string of coalition governments, pursuing nationalist and populist policies until October 1998 when an alliance of liberals, centrists, left-wingers and ethnic Hungarians ousted him, forming a new coalition with Mikulas Dzurinda as prime minister.

During Mr Dzurinda's term of office (1998-2006), forged ahead with an economic reform programme and saw a boost in foreign investment. His government also tried to improve the lot of minorities.

's ethnic Hungarian community constitutes about a tenth of the country's population, and the status of this substantial minority has long been a source of tension between and Hungary.

The premiership of Mr Dzurinda's successor, Robert Fico, has been marred by regular sparring over the treatment of the Hungarian minority.

also has a significant Romany population which suffers disproportionately high levels of poverty and social deprivation.

The post-war Benes decrees, which called for the expulsion of 3 million ethnic Germans and 600,000 ethnic Hungarians from then-Czecho and the confiscation of their property, remain a sensitive issue in relations with neighbours.

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Full name: Slovak Republic Population: 5.4 million (UN, 2010) Capital: Bratislava Area: 49,033 sq km (18,932 sq miles) Major language: Slovak Major religion: Christianity Life expectancy: 72 years (men), 79 years (women) (UN) Monetary unit: 1 euro

Serbia

became a stand-alone sovereign republic in summer 2006 after Montenegro voted in a referendum for independence from the Union of and Montenegro.

When the vote was followed by a formal declaration of independence by Montenegro, a special session of parliament in Belgrade declared to be the legal successor to the now defunct union of and Montenegro.

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inherits membership of the United Nations and other international institutions.

San Marino

Landlocked is one of the world's smallest countries. Surrounded by Italy, it is an echo from an era when city-states proliferated across Europe.

Mount Titano, part of the Appennine range, dominates 's landscape. Three defensive fortresses perch on Titano's slopes, looking out to the Adriatic coast.

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is said to be the world's oldest surviving republic.

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Tradition has it that the country was founded in the fourth century AD by a devout Christian stonemason called Marinus, who took refuge there and set up a small community. Its rugged isolation helped the enclave to develop and keep its independence.

An 1862 friendship and cooperation treaty with Italy, which has since been revised and expanded, reinforced 's independence.

Russia

emerged from a decade of post-Soviet economic and political turmoil to reassert itself as a world power.

Income from vast natural resources, above all oil and gas, have helped overcome the economic collapse of 1998. The state-run gas monopoly Gazprom is the world's largest producer and exporter, and supplies a growing share of Europe's needs.

Economic strength has allowed Vladimir Putin to enhance state control over political institutions and the media, buoyed by extensive public support for his policies as prime minister, president and now prime minister again.

Spanning nine time zones, is the largest country on earth in terms of surface area, although large tracts in the north and east are inhospitable and sparsely populated.

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This vast Eurasian land mass covers more than 17m sq km, with a climate ranging from the Arctic north to the generally temperate south.

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In the period of rapid privatisation in the early 1990s, the government of President Boris Yeltsin created a small but powerful group of magnates, often referred to as "oligarchs", who acquired vast interests in the energy and media sectors.

President Yeltsin's successor, Vladimir Putin, moved to reduce the political influence of oligarchs soon after taking office, forcing some into exile and prosecuting others.

Mikhail Khodorkovsky, the former head of the Yukos oil company and a supporter of the liberal opposition, is serving eight years in a Siberian penal colony on tax and fraud charges. Yukos assets were later acquired by the state oil giant Rosneft.

resurgent

During Mr Putin's presidency 's booming economy and assertive foreign policy bolstered national pride. In particular, promoted its perceived interests in former Soviet states more openly, even at the cost of antagonising the West.

Romania

The largest of the Balkan countries, has dramatic mountain scenery and a coastline on the Black Sea.

It has seen numerous empires come and go from the Roman, to the Ottoman, to the Austro-Hungarian.

After World War II the country was under communist rule although the leadership pursued a foreign policy independent of that of the Soviet Union.

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, a slower developer than other former communist countries of eastern Europe, took a major step away from its past when it was one of seven countries to join Nato in late March 2004. Its strategic location and Black Sea air and naval bases make it attractive to the alliance.

Portugal

, a country with a rich history of seafaring and discovery, looks out from the Iberian peninsula into the Atlantic Ocean.

When it handed over its last overseas territory, Macau, to Chinese administration in 1999, it brought to an end a long and sometimes turbulent era as a colonial power.

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The roots of that era stretch back to the 15th century when Portuguese explorers such as Vasco da Gama put to sea in search of a passage to India. By the 16th century these sailors had helped build a huge empire embracing Brazil as well as swathes of Africa and Asia. There are still some 200 million Portuguese speakers around the world today.

's history has had a lasting impact on the culture of the country with Moorish and Oriental influences in architecture and the arts. Traditional folk dance and music, particularly the melancholy fado, remain vibrant.

Poland

A nation with a proud cultural heritage, can trace its roots back over 1,000 years. Positioned at the centre of Europe, it has known turbulent and violent times.

There have been periods of independence as well as periods of domination by other countries. Several million people, half of them Jews, died in World War II.

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A new era began when became an EU member in May 2004, five years after joining Nato and 15 years after the end of communist rule.

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It was the birthplace of the former Soviet bloc's first officially recognised independent mass political movement when strikes at the Gdansk shipyard in August 1980 led to agreement with the authorities on the establishment of the Solidarity trade union.

The shoots of political freedom were trampled again 16 months later when communist leader Wojciech Jaruzelski declared martial law. But the movement for change was irreversible. Elections in summer 1989 ushered in eastern Europe's first post-communist government.

The presence in the Vatican of Polish Pope John-Paul II was an important influence on the Solidarity movement throughout the 1980s. The Roman Catholic church remains a very potent force in Polish life.

Norway

Europe's northernmost country, the Kingdom of is famed for its mountains and spectacular fjord coastline, as well as its history as a seafaring power.

It also enjoys one of the highest standards of living in the world, in large part due to the discovery in the late 1960s of offshore oil and gas deposits.

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's annual oil revenue amounts to around $40bn (£21bn), and more than half of its exports come from this sector. To counter inflation, spending of oil revenue was restricted.

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The considerable surplus is invested in a sovereign wealth fund, estimated in 2009 at $400bn.

What to do with the money is one of the country's most contentious political issues. The centre-right want more of it to be used to fund infrastructure improvements, while the centre-left wants to keep it invested for future generations.

declared its independence in 1905 when the union with Sweden was dissolved. 's people value their independence and prosperity highly. The Norwegians rejected membership of the then European Economic Community in 1972, and of the European Union in 1994, despite being urged by their governments to vote "yes".

In recent decades, has forged a stronger role for itself in international politics. It has mediated between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organisation, and from 2000 to 2009 was the chief mediator in the conflict between the Sri Lankan government and Tamil separatists.

Netherlands

The ' name reflects its low-lying topography, with more than a quarter of its total area under sea level.

Now a constitutional monarchy, the country began its independent life as a republic in the 16th century, when the foundations were laid for it to become one of the world's foremost maritime trading nations.

Although traditionally among the keener advocates of the European Union, Dutch voters echoed those in France by spurning the proposed EU constitution in a 2005 referendum.

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The has produced many of the world's most famous artists from Rembrandt and Vermeer in the 17th century to Van Gogh in the 19th and Mondrian in the 20th. It attracts visitors from across the globe.

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After a longstanding policy of neutrality between Europe's great powers, the bitter experience of invasion and occupation during World War II led the to become a leading supporter of international cooperation.

Almost 20% of the total area of the is water, and much of the land has been reclaimed from the North Sea in efforts which date back to medieval times and have spawned an extensive system of dykes.